You Were Everything

I want to know what you’re thinking.
If you’re okay.
I want to be able to enjoy my time with you.
I Gave everything for you.
I loved you. Still do.
You were never a mistake.
You told me I was everything to you.
The best thing that’s ever happened to you.
When we were together, I enjoyed every moment of our time.
People asked us why we bother with each other.
We had our small problems but in the end it worked out.
I love you for everything.
We loved each other, and still do I hope…
Towards the end it got worse.
We fell apart.
I regret some of the things I had done.
You had said your sorry.
I forgave you, but it still hurt.
just the thought about you.
I hope things will be different soon.
I need you here with me.

by Astik Jain

Human

Happy are those who knew how to truly feel
What makes us human?
Is it our ability to reason?
Is it our ability to solve problems, or our ability to protect ourselves?
I daresay it is our vulnerabilities
Our imperfections, the finiteness of life
Struck me, wound me and I bleed.
Take a blow and I feel pain.
Take away my hope and I cry.
I feel.
I recognize your presence and learn how to love
Take it away and I yearn.
Isolate me and I feel sorrow.
I am not forever.
Even my bones will become dust and soon will be nothing more.
My heart beats are numbered.
Death awaits me.
But I love and, and my soul becomes forever.
But I hope, and rain comes to the desert.
But I dream, and you and I become the universe.
I knew and felt love.
I am liberated from finiteness and death.
All because we are human.

by Astik Jain

Lonely Heart

Behind pretty smiles
and behind pretty eyes,
she carries her trials,
and on no one she relies.
All alone in her heart.
What else can fall apart?
Darkness overhead looming,
won’t stop until it’s consuming.
Her heart it starts to infest.
Her mind put to the test.
In her problems she is wading,
and the shore is quickly fading.
She looks up to the sky,
if you’re up there God, why?
Why am I all alone,
stuck in this worlds tidal zone.

by Astik Jain

Mughal Architecture

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

All the early Mughal Rulers except Aurangzeb were great bui1ders. With the coming of the Mughals, Indian architecture was greatly influenced by Persian styles. The Mughals constructed excellent mausoleums, mosques, forts, gardens and cities. The Mughal buildings show a uniform pattern both in structure and character.

The main characteristic features of Mughal architecture are the bulbous domes, the slender minarets with cupolas at the four corners, large halls, massive vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation.

The few mosques and palaces built by Babar and Humayun are not of much architectural significance

Sher Shah of the Sur Dynasty who ruled over the Kingdom of the Mughals after driving Humayun out of  the country was not only a great administrator but a lover of art also. He built several forts, tombs and mosques. The monuments of Sher Shah are a continuation of the Lodi style. The mausoleums are octagonal in plan and have verandahs around them, surmounted by huge domes. The verandahs have three smaller domes on each side.

Purana Quila (Old Fort), Delhi

Sher Shah built the Purana Quila in Delhi. Started by him, it was completed by Humayun. Built of red and buff sand-stone, it is ornamented with black and white marble and coloured tiles. A beautiful mosque inside the Quila with ornamental arches, decorative panels, geometrical designs and inscriptions is an example of the development of architecture and ornamentation during Sher Shah's reign.

Sher Shah's tomb, Sasaram

Sher Shah's tomb at Sasaram in Bihar built in 1549 is in the centre of a large square tank and rises al 46 metres high. It is a two storey construction on a terraced platform. The upper terrace has pillared domes and the two storeys above have a pillared kiosk at the four corners. The base of the large central dome has thirty two sides. The tomb is decorated with coloured tiles, very few of which remain now. Entrance to the tomb is through a domed structure.

Mughal architecture begins with Akbar who showed his passion for building by planning and constructing splendid edifices. During his reign Mughal architecture took on new forms. Akbar made free use of both Hindu and Persian styles. The use of red sandstone inlaid with white marble and painted designs on walls and ceiling are the salient ­features of Akbar's buildings.

Akbar constructed numerous forts, towers, palaces, mosques, mausoleums and gateways. A structure of note built during his reign is Humayun's Tomb in Delhi.

Humayun's Tomb

Humayun’s tomb was built by his widow Haji Begum in 1565 A.D. in Delhi in 1569A.D., fourteen years after his death.  The mausoleum stands in the centre of a square enclosed garden.  The garden is divided and sub-divided into squares, typical of Mughal gardens.  The lofty double storeyed structure is built on a huge high platform terrace which has a row of calls with arched openings.  The central chamber is octagonal in shape and contains the tomb.  Each side of the mausoleum has a large arched alcove in the centre with smaller ones on either side. It has a high marble double dome in the centre and pillared kiosks with cupolas surrounding it.  Built of red sandstone with an inlay of black, white and yellow marble it presents an imposing picture.  Planned by a Persian architect and constructed by Indian workers, it is a combination of both Persian and Indian styles of architecture.  Entrance to the mausoleum is through two double storeyed gateways.

 

Humayun's Tomb

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

Humayun Tomb in World Heritage Monuments of India

Images of Humayun's Tomb

Agra Fort

A greater part of the fort at Agra was constructed by Akbar starting in 1565 AD and completed it in 1574 A.D. Situated on the bank of the river Jamuna, it is a massive and grand structure.  The special feature of this fort is the 2.5 kms. long and 21 metres  high circuitous wall of solid red sand stone. The stones are linked with iron rings so close that not even a hair can pass through.  The entrance to the fort is through two gateways.  The main entrance known as Delhi Gate was the ceremonial entrance to the fort.  The other smaller gateway is called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate because of the two huge elephants on either side of the gate and was meant for private use.

The Delhi Gate entrance archway is flanked by two double storeyed octagonal bastions crowned by octagonal domed kiosks.  A balcony separates the two storeys.  The structure above the balcony has arched recesses.  The gateway is decorated with beautiful panels of coloured tiles and marble inlay work.

The fort is surrounded by a deep moat.  The fort formerly contained numerous buildings of red sand stone but these were later demolished in the reign of Shah Jehan who constructed marble pavilions instead.  Some of the important buildings inside the fort are the Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jehangiri Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls and rooms. The corbel brackets, doorways and the chajja above them are profusely carved.

The elaborate architecture of the brackets seems to be an imitation of wood work.  The planning and construction of the fort show that Rajput architectural styles were freely adopted.

Agra Fort

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

Fatehpur Sikri

Akbar’s greatest architectural achievement was the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his Capital City near Agra.  The construction pf the walled city was started in 1569 A.D. and completed in 1574 A.D.  contained some of the most beautiful buildings – both religious and secular which testify to the Emperor’s aim of achieving social, political and religious integration.  The religious edifices worth mentioning are the Jami Masjid and Salim Chisti’s Tomb.  The tomb built in 1571 A.D. in the corner of the mosque compound is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it.

Jami Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey

Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chisti, Fatehpur Sikri

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

The secular ones include Jodh Bai’s palace, the Panch Mahal, the Diwan-i-khas and the Buland Darwaza. Jodha Bai's palace is a large building consisting of rooms on all four sides of a courtyard. The centre part and four corners of the building are doubled storeyed. A small chapel attached has niches in the wakks for idols. The panch Mahal is a five stored structure, each storey smaller in size as they go up, the last one being only a kiosk.

Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

The Diwani Khas, an outstanding structure was meant for the Emperor to sit in audience with his ministers and listen to disputes and discussions.  A novel structure, it is a large hall with a giant monolithic pillars in the centre with a circular railed platform on top like a cup which is supported by a circular array of beautifully carved brackets.  From the  Central platform branch out four diagonal railed galleries symbolizing Akbar’s supremacy over his dominions.  The gallery is continued on all four sides of the hall.  The audience  sat in the galleries and in the hall below giving it the effect of a two-storey building.  Sitting in the centre, Akbar heard discourses and discussions on religions.

Diwani Khas

(Picture courtesy Great Mirror)

Buland Darwaza

A magnificent gateway was added later in 1571-72 to commemorate his conquest of Gujarat.  Built of red sand stone and marble it is said to be the “most perfect architectural achievement in the whole of India".  A flight of steps lead to the gateway which is about 53 metres in height and 39 metres in width.  Entrance is through a huge arched domed recess.  A broad rectangular strip bordering the archway has calligraphic inscriptions on it.  At the corners are slender turrets.  The beautiful perforated parapet and the row of kiosks with cupolas add to the dignity of the monument.  An inscription on the gateway testifies to Akbar’s religious toleration.

Buland Darwaza, Fatehour Sikri, Agra

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

Jehangir though a lover of art was fond of natural beauty  and so devoted his time to the laying of beautiful gardens such as the Shalimar and Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, Kashmir and to miniature paintings. Out of the few of his constructions of note are Akbar's tomb at Sikandra and the tomb of his father-in-law Itmad-ud-Daula both near Agra

Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra       

The Mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra near Agra was started by Akbar and completed by his son Jahangir in 1612 A.D. who changed the original design of his father. Designed on the model of  a Buddhist Vihara, it is set in the centre of a square garden.  The enclosure wall on each side has a gateway.  The main gateway has four white marble minarets in the four corners.  The Mausoleum has five terraces, rising from the basement, one above the other, diminishing in size as they ascend.  The red sand-stone entrance gateway is the largest and is richly decorated with inlaid coloured stone work.  With its charming proportions, it is by itself a work of art.

Akbar's Tomb, Sikandra

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

Itmad-Ud-Daula’s Tomb: 

The Mausoleum of Itmad-ud-Daula, the revenue minister of Jahangir and Nur Jehan’s father was built in Agra on the banks of the Jumuna. Started by Jahangir it was completed by Nur Jehan in 1628 A.D.  A small rectangular structure in white marble, inlaid with semi-precious stones and coloured glass, it is a delicate and beautiful piece of architecture.  It is the first pure marble monument and differs from the typical massive, red sand-stone structures of earlier Mughals.  Situated in a garden amidst fountains, it has a square lower storey with four minarets in the four corners.  A traceried pavilion forms the second storey.  A central chamber inside contains the tombs and is surrounded by an enclosed verandah.  A jewel in marble-“there is no other building like it in the entire range of Mughal Architecture”.

Itmad-Ud-Daula’s Tomb, Agra

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

Shah Jehan, the most famous of the Mughal builders had a passion for building. His reign marks the construction of numerous palaces, forts, mosques and gardens. His buildings are marked by the quality feminity, grace and elegance. They do not show the masculinity of Akbar's solid red sand-stone constructions. Mughal architecture reached the peaks of excellence during this reign. The main characteristics of his buildings are - the use of         delicately carved white marble richly decorated with pietra dura or inlay of coloured stones and calligraphy in black marble. Some of his outstanding works are the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque in Agra Fort and the Taj Mahal, the Red fort in Delhi with the Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas, the Jami Masjid in Delhi and the mausoleum of Jehangir in Shahdara, Lahore (in Pakistan).

Jama Masjid, Delhi

The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest

Red Fort

Soon after laying the foundation or his new Capital city of Shahjehanabad Shah Jchan started construction of the red sandstone Red Fort or Lal Quila in 1638 A.D. on the banks of the river Jumuna. The fort took nearly nine years to complete. Within the walled city, the fortress is in the shape of a rectangle 900 metres by 550 metres.  The rampart walls are about 34 metres high. A moat surrounds the rampart. Two of the five gateways of the fort are three ­storeyed structures flanked by octagonal towers. These are the Lahori Gate and the Delhi Gate. Figures of two huge elephants flank the Delhi Gate. The main entrance to the fort is through the Lahori Gate. A covered passage with shops on either side leads to the palaces inside the fort. Barracks for soldiers, audience halls, horse and elephant stables, and ornamental gardens are other features of the fort.

Some of the beautiful buildings are the Diwan­-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Mahal, Hira Mahal and Rang Mahal, the latter three, all halls decorated with pietro dura and patterns in gold and colour and floors paved with marble slabs. The Moti Masjid was added later in 1654 A.D. and is an excellent specimen of the balance and rhythm maintained in Mughal constructions.

 The Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience) is an arched pillared durbar hall. A white marble throne, embellished with coloured inlay work stands under a marble canopy. Below the throne is a marble dais inlaid with semi-precious stones. Behind the throne, the wall has beautiful panels of flowers and birds in coloured inlay work.

The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) is a rectangular central hall with aisles of arches and painted pillars. The four corners of the roof have pillars with chhatris on them. The walls have the famous verses of Amir Khusro which says that “If there is paradise on earth it is here”

Red Fort, Delhi

Red Fort in World Heritage Monuments of India

Images of Red Fort Tomb

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal in Agra, a dream in white marble was built by Shah Jehan as a memorial to his beloved wife Mumtaz Begum.  Built on the banks of the river Jumna, it was started in 1632 A.D.  and took 22 years to complete.  Marble from Makrana and precious stones from different parts of the world were used in its construction.  Planned by Isa, a Persian architect it is a masterpiece of architecture.  The Taj is situated in the centre of a high marble terrace.  A marble minaret of four storeys stands on each of the four corners of the terrace.  The minarets are crowned with domes.  The main structure is a square.  A huge, vaulted recess with smaller arched recesses in two storeys on either side  make up the facade of the building on all sides.  An octagonal hall with an exquisite perforated marble screen contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah Jehan.  The vaulted ceiling is crowned in the centre by a large bulbous dome which tapers off into a foliated crest.  Around the dome are four cupolas.  The surface of the walls – exterior and interior and the cenotaphs are beautifully decorated with pietra dura, floral and geometrical designs.  Borders of inscriptions decorate the main archways.

A Mosque on the west and a corresponding structure on the east in red sand-stone complete the effect of symmetry.  Situated in a large enclosed rectangular garden with fountains, ornamental pools and water-courses, entrance to the Taj is by a majestic gateway.

Taj Mahal, Agra

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

Bibi Ka Maqbara

Aurangzeb being a puritan did not encourage art in any form. Architecture and fine Arts declined during his reign never to come up again during Mughal rule. One of the very few buildings of this period worth mentioning is the mausoleum of his wife, Rabia-Ud-Daurani erected in 1679 A.D. in Aurangabad (Deccan) by her son. A poor replica of the Taj Mahal and half its size, it shows the extent to which art had declined. Its noteworthy features are the latticed octagonal white marble screen, which encloses the tombs and the beaten brass doors with floral panels and borders.

Sikh Temples

In 1579, Guru Ramdas, the fourth Guru of the Sikhs founded the city of Amritsar in the Punjab. He first constructed a pool and named it Amrit Sar or 'Pool of Nectar' on a stretch of land gifted to him by Akbar. His successor, Guru Arjun Dev built a temple in the middle of the pool to enshrine the Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred book of the Sikhs. In 1803, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Ruler of Punjab improved the temple. The lower half of the temple was covered with marble and the upper half with copper over which a pure gold leaf of 400 Kgs was covered. Since then this ‘Hari Mandir’ is called the ‘Golden Temple’. It has four entrances in the four cardinal directions. A marble causeway across the water connects the entrance gateway to the main shrine. Floral patterns of coloured semi-precious stone inlay work , glass work and beautiful fresco paintings decorate the inner walls and ceiling of the temple. The architecture is a combination of Hindu and Muslim styles and lays stress on calmness and serenity. A marble paved square construction adjacent to the Golden Temple is the Akal Takht or Immortal Throne – the seat of Sikh religion. The weapons used by the Sikh Gurus are also kept here. The temple with its beautiful domes throwing its reflection in the pool is a piece of grace and beauty. Other important places of worship in Punjab for the Sikhs are the Gurudwara at Taran Taran Sahib designed in Mughal style, the Fatehgarh Sahib at Sirhind where the young sons of Guru Gobind Singh were buried alive by Aurangjeb and the Gurudwara at Anandpur sahib where Guru Gobind Singh initiated the Khalsa.

India

Environment
Babur, (1483-1530) the founder of the Mughal empire was “awestruck by a different world; its mountains, rivers, jungles and deserts, its towns, its cultivated lands, its animals and plants, its peoples and their tongues, its rains, and its winds, are all different.” (Johnson 1996: 13) India is a large part of the subcontinent South Asia and is bordered by Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bangledesh, Burma, the Arabian Sea, the India Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal.

Climate

The climate of India varies a lot due to the extreme altitudes present there. The coasts of India are among the wettest places on earth, while other places within India have little rainfall. The Thar desert receives almost none at all. (Johnson 1996: 29) Heat is to India what fog and rain are to England, what hazy sunshine and smog are to southern California. (Wolpert 1991: 11) Over much of the subcontinent there are three seasons. From October to late February is a cool, dry season; from late February to May is a hot, dry season; and from late May to September is a less hot, wet season. (Johnson 1996: 29)


Monsoons are the dominant climatic features of the whole of this tropical region. India particularly relies for its fertility upon the southwest monsoon, which blows from June to September. The monsoon is dire to India because it represents life. If the monsoon fails, as occasionally it does, starvation and famine follow. (Rawson 1977: 14) For example, in the Bihar famine of 1967, the failure of the monsoon decimated yields from winter rice, as well as severely reducing wheat production. (Johnson 1996: 28) Frequently, on the other hand, it produces vast floods in the areas it reaches, which cause widespread destruction and loss of life, as well as spreading fertile alluvial silt. (Rawson 1977: 14) Throughout the year, temperatures vary from 25°C to 40°C (68°F to 104F°). (Johnson 1996: 30) This climate makes for an extremely hot and humid land.

The Land Regions of India

The Himalayan Mountain Range
The Himalayan Mountain Range is among the coldest places in the world (Johnson1996: 29) stretching 2,500km from Pakistan to Brahmaputra, Assam. This mountain range shelters India from the cold winds of Tibet and plays a huge role in determining the climate of North India. The melting snows of this mountain surge into rivers, which carry detritus and rich sediment from the eroded mountain and deposits them in the valleys and plains of India. (Wolpert 1991: 18) The eastern region of India contains tropical forests while the western region of India house pine and coniferous woodlands. More plants found in the Himalayas are chir pine, pine nut, oak, maple, and ash. (India Site: Flora and Fauna) In the Alpine areas there are juniper and rhododendron. (Incredible India: Admire All Things Bright and Beautiful 2006) In the rain-soaked foothills are deciduous trees, shrubs, ferns and grasses. The Brahmaputra Valley has tea plantations and rice fields and slopes house mulberry trees on which silkworms are bred. (India Site: Flora and Fauna) Some animals that live in the Himalayas are sheep, musk deer, wild goats, brown bears, snow leopards, and jungle cats. (Incredible India: Admire All Things Bright and Beautiful 2006)

Indo-Gangetic Plain/Northern Plains

South of the Himalayan mountains is the Indo-Gangetic Plain. This plain is 300 km wide (N/S) and over 3,000 km in length (E/W). The Indo Gangetic Plain is a fertile alluvial plain making it a great place for agriculture. Further south, there is a series of hilly uplands with pocket of plains and river basins making this southern area difficult to penetrate. (Johnson 1996) However, this land is still relatively fertile. The upper Gangetic Plains have tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf deciduous forests. In the past this land supported rhinoceroses, Asian elephants, and wild water buffalo. Over time people have been clearing and cultivating the land so that over 95% was converted to agriculture and settlement areas. A few larger animals that may continue to live there are tigers, elephants, swamp deer. The wetlands here support waterfowl and many other migratory birds. (World Wildlife Fund: Upper Gangetic Plains 2001)

Northeast - Sunderbans
In the northeast there are the Sunderbans, which consists of dense mangrove forests and is referred to as a tidal swamp forest covering 2,500 km. This area is crisscrossed with distributaries and the land is saturated with salt. The nature there is extremely hostile and the weather fluctuates from humid to scorching hot. Bengal Tigers, porpoises, fishing cats, pangolins, rhinoceroses, Indian pythons, and crocodiles are a few animals that live there. (India Wildlife Tours: Wildlife in Sunderbans National Park)

Thar Desert
The Thar Desert is also known as the Great Indian Desert located in western India. Three major regions of the Thar Desert are the Sand Covered Thar, Plains, and Hills. This area is interspersed with hillocks, gravel, salt, marshes and some lakes. The Luni River is the only river crossing these sands. The desert region of India houses short and stout trees, stunted by the sun, cactus, reunjha, kheira, kanju, and ak. Vegetation in the desert is reduced to dry scrubland and drought-resistant plants. (India Site: Flora and Fauna) Tropical moist deciduous forests are mixed with tropical dry deciduous trees in this region. Trees like sal, teak, semul, laurel, rosewook, mahua, amla, khair, and common bamboo grow here. (India Online: Flora 2010)
Some animals of this desert are falcons, houbara bustards, Indian spiny-tailed lizards, chinkaras, blackbucks, desert foxes, and caracals. (World Wildlife Fund: Thar Desert 2001)

The Rann of Kutch is an unusual seasonal marsh located in the Thar desert. In the dry season, the marshland is dried out leaving salt islands on the grasslands and savannas. During monsoon season, the marshland floods and is transformed into a vast inland sea. This place is the home of the largest flamingo breeding colony in the world. Millions of pink flamingos fly to this march each year to nest and raise young. The Rann of Kutch also houses the Asiatic wild asses, the chinkaras, nilgais, wolves, blackbucks, striped hyenas, desert cats, demoiselle crane, houbara bustards, lesser floricans, and caracals. (World Wildlife Fund: Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh 2001)

The Peninsula
The Vindhya Range divides the Indo-Gangetic Plain from the Peninsula. (Coutsoukins: India The Peninsula 1995) Peninsular India is almost entirely composed of the Deccan Plateau made of ancient bedrock (1996 Johnson) and has tropical and subtropical broadleaf foresets. (World Wildlife Fund: Central Deccan Plateau 2001) The land has black soil made from volcanic lavas making the Deccan a good place for farming. (1996 Johnson 33, 34) Within this plateau are a variety of hooved animals. 80% of the region, which used to be moist evergreen rain forests, are gone and replaced by dry-climate forests. (World Wildlife Fund: Central Deccan Plateau 2001) The Deccan plateau is sandwiched between two coastal ranges: the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. These coastal ranges, during the monsoon season, are one of the wettest places on earth. The Western Ghats was estimated over 16,000 mm of precipitation from June to September. (Johnson 1996: 31).

The Coast
The northwestern coastal plain has tidal marshes, drowned valleys, and estuaries. The southwest coast of the Peninsula has lagoons canopied by coconut trees and the longest uninterrupted stretch of rainforests in the country. (India Site: Flora and Fauna) The south has lagoons, marshes, and beach ridges. The eastern coastal plains are wider than the west and have large river deltas. (Coutsoukins: India The Peninsula 1995) Flowing rivers continually reshape the coastline, depositing and shifting silt carried from inland. (Johnson 1996: 14) On these coasts palm trees, especially coconut palm trees are common.

Crops

Maize, barley, fruit, almonds, apricots and apples grow on higher slopes of the valleys of the Himalayas. In the drier upper Ganges and Indus Valley area the most important cereal crop that is grown is wheat. In the lower Gangetic plain rice, the most important crop, is grown. In the arid parts of the south gram, chick peas, lentils, millet, and cotton are produced. (Johnson 1996: 35)

Minerals and Resources

India is a country rich in minerals and resources. Babur, (1483-1520), the founder of the Mughal empire in northern India, recorded that he was drawn to India by the prospect of ruling a large country “full of gold and silver”. (Johnson 1996: 13) 15th century statues (Rawson 1991: 21) and King Kushan’s coins from between AD 75 and 244 (Johnson 1996: 20) show that metals, such as gold, silver, and copper were in use for a long time. Other resources and minerals India has is Teak, which is timber used to make ships or furniture; ebony, bamboo, iron ore (About India 1954: 8,9), salt, gypsum, gemstones, gas, oil, bauxite, and mineral sands. (Johnson 1996: 198-215) Aluminum is also produced here with large deposits of manganese and some coal. (About India 1954: 8,9) Also, 80% of the world’s jute, a natural textile fibre, is grown between India and Bangledesh. (Dall': Production and Design) Diverse rock formations allow a rich source of building materials such as pink marble, granite, and limestone. (About India 1954: 8,9)


LanguageDuring the Mughal Empire many of the early people spoke the Chagatai language. The Chagatai language was a branch from the Turkic language family. It has many similar words and phrases associated with the Persian and Arabic languages. The language was written using the Perso-Arabic alphabet. The Chagatai language can be separated into three main time periods. The first time period began around 1400 until 1465 and is known as the Pre-classical Chagatai. Next was the Classical Chagatai between 1465 and 1600. The third time period was the Post-classical Chagatai from 1600 to 1921 (Wikipedia September 16, 2010).

The Mughal Empire

Mughal India was recognized for its remarkable accomplishments in poetry and a large variety of their Persian writing. Persian writing eventually symbolized Mughal triumph in India. The Mughals basically inherited a legacy and continued with the incredible writing. Many Persian writers went to India in search of better fortune. During this time there was religious and political persecution in the sectarian Safavid regime, therefore many of them were going to India. Mughal India became close with Iran culturally because the Iranians were able to flourish more in their writing talents rather than in their own country. As a result, Persian managed to keep its status as the first language of the Mughal king and his court. This ruler Akbar was not highly educated so he had his important books read out loud to him. He had a library of books and poetical works that were written in Arabic, Persian, Hindi, Greek, Kashmiri. In most situations, Akbar normally preferred the ones in Persian (Alam 2004: 122-6).

The people of India use music as another form of communication. They have written hymns to express their feelings, beliefs, and aspects of the Vedic religion. The hymns acknowledge the existence of a future life. In this future life rewards are acquired for the good deeds achieved on earth and the punishments are carried out for crimes committed (Oppert 1978: 530).

Old Persian Alphabet

The caste system of India separated people into many different classes. One that divided into 18 different classes is known as the Pariah caste. The people amongst the higher classes and lower classes are usually not on friendly terms with each other; therefore it was not common for them to speak to one another. They disagree on issues associated with taking sides with the right-hand and left-hand castes. The debates usually seemed to have issues relating to both national and religious issues. “According to one version Vyāsa induced the king to issue a proclamation, enacting that all those who sided with the king should be styled right-hand caste men, and all those who opposed him left-hand caste men.” (Oppert 1978: 57-8) In the caste system there are generally rules as to people talking to certain people in certain situations. Sometimes the people acknowledge each other in a friendly manner, typically when they are not engaged in hostilities. (Oppert 1978: 66)

Among certain tribes if an unmarried girl goes along side with an outsider of a lower caste then she would most likely have been expelled and rejected from her community. Women had lesser importance as compared to the men; therefore the upper caste would not acknowledge a woman in the lower class especially if she was rejected from her community. (Chauhan 1990: 42-3)

In the following You Tube video the people discuss the many languages and dialects that are presently spoken in India. One language that they emphasize is the Sanskrit language which was introduced during the ancient Vedic Period. Warlike tribes invaded India from the northwest and gradually spread to the east, then to the south, and almost throughout the entire country. These conquerors spoke the Sanskrit language and forced it on the aborigines. (Macdonell 1956: 12)



Media/Technology
The technology found in India was the foundation of the technology that we use today. The interesting point is that many of these techniques or tools were created by China.

When thinking about what Indians used for agriculture, an object that should sound familiar was used back in the 15th century. The plow was one of the more revolutionary items found in India. A product of China, India was able to grab a hold of it like the rest of Asia and use it for their farming. Over time, high powered officials began trying to use updated plows that would be more efficient; however, people using the plows were in a serious state of poverty and couldn’t afford the newest equipment (Gopal 1999: 319).

Though they are not something Indians invented, horses played an important role during the 15th century. If walking wasn’t fast enough, horses were used get from point A to point B. Not only were they useful in transportation, but they were used on the farm. For example, horses pulled the plow to help with the process of growing crops. Another interesting mode of transportation was a palkee. Women who had money or power were often carried around in these. Four men would lift up the woman who sat comfortably inside a very royal looking box, with shades and everything.




Paper was large form of communication in the 15th century, it was essentially the only way to communicate with another person besides physically talking to one another. During the battle of Atlakh, Chinese prisoners were brought back and introduced the idea of paper to India. Originially, they made paper with the linen they had, but eventually paper was being made out of flax and other different vegetable fibers (Rahman 1999: 264). They would use India ink, which is made out of fine soot called lampblack, then combined with water and a gelatin to keep everything together.

Though we may communicate with words majority of the time, music is something everyone can understand and interpret. Like the rest of the world India used different musical instruments to create a thought and share it with the people. The khol was used during the 15th century. As Dilip Barthakur explains in his book The Music and Musical Instruments of North Eastern India, the khol is a “two faced cylindrical instrument” that is played with the fingers (Barthakur 2003: 89).
Something that everyone knows about is the great invention of gun powder. Another invention from the Chinese, gunpowder was seen because of the constant immigration seen during this time (Rahman 1999: 257). As history has shown the world, whoever has the most powerful weapon, is the country that holds the power. With this advancement in weaponry, India was able to create guns and cannons. The material they used for this items, were iron, brass, bronze, and steel (Mehrotra 1982).

These few items are only a small amount of what India had to offer to their culture. These ideas and tools were the first look at what technology would be like during this century.

Education/Child-Rearing

Imagine yourself as a boy in India. It is the year 1500 and you are being educated. Your teacher is a guru that orally lectures a rigorous curriculum, and your writing materials are bark and leaves. Your occupation is predetermined based off of what your father’s career is and your parents choose who you will love. Does that sound like a society that one would ideally want to partake in? Children in India did not have freedom of choice like so many of us are use to in America today. They were very dependent upon their parents who chose their marriage partner, their career and their form of education. “For girls, the stage of student hood coincides with that of householder, and the husband stands in place as the teacher” (www.indhistory.com). The man of the household was in charge of teaching raising his children and teaching his wife household duties. Boys are favored and believed to be reincarnated. “A strong preference for sons, resulting in the neglect of daughters has been documented in rural India” (Miller 1985:1). The males have a “ second birth, much like a present day confirmation or Bar Mitzvah where they wear a thread around their waist signifying they are born again and enter the stages of life” (www.indhistory.com). These four stages range from a boy being “born again” up until he decides to break apart from his village and wander, if he so chooses. Young males in childhood are encouraged to be respectful, celebite, and obedient to their parents wishes until they reach their second stage into adulthood. “When villagers speak of achievement, almost all think in terms of education and the kinds of occupations through education” (Verma 1970:101). Although the boy takes after his father in profession, (Father is a farmer, therefore son will be farmer) the culture believes in educating males to be extremely talented and intellectual in their career. “Childhood is the period of effective enculturation of the children, youth that of hard-work work and enjoyment of pleasures, and old age too of hard-work and exercising social control on the younger ones” (Ruhela 1984:30). While women do not receive the promising education that males receive, they are not devalued as children, just believed to have a different calling, such as household chores. The males are dependent upon their parents to raise them and they also have general duties that pay off the “three debts” to their ancestors to be able to get married and have children. The duties that they partake in involve sacrifices and household rituals.
Parents demand that their sons do not have any sexual relations with girls so that they can focus completely on their education. Parents plan their children’s marriage partner, and even provide a dowry as payment for a wife. Parents expect their children to have an infant within the first year of marriage, even though the parents-to-be are still children themselves. After the parents feel they have done their duty as a parent, in the fourth stage, they are given the choice of leaving behind everything in living in the forest as hermits, which entails leaving all of their possessions to their children.

GenderAs of 1450 in India, there were two main genders, male and female. As a child, children are allowed to play without being reprimanded. At the age of 4 or 5, boys are required to give up playing childish games and start learning the alphabet and to read. Based on what caste system the boys were in, they were then initiated into ritual instruction. Ritual instruction allows the boys to learn about doing rituals and allows them to perform the rituals. If the child was in the Brahman caste, they were initiated at the age of eight; if in the ksatriya caste, they were initiated at age eleven; if in the vaisya caste, they were initiated at age twelve. (Auboyer 1965) After the boys had completely initiation, they were then awarded with a sacred thread. It was placed over the boy’s left shoulder and under the right arm. The boys were bound to wear this for the rest of their lives and could now perform rituals.

Roles of Women:
In India, women were considered to be less superior to men. People also believed that women could not be trusted with any type of work that required responsibility. Women were also believed to not be fit for any type of independence. For example, the father took care of her during childhood; her husband protected her during youth; and sons protected her in old age. This allowed for not type of independence for women. Women also inherited very little. But in the event of inheritance, Muslim women received a more liberal treatment versus Hindu women. The main role for women was the caregiver to the children.(Rashid 1969)

Roles of Men:
The main roles of men in Indian society are to hunt, and gathered food, and were guild masters. (Dube 2001) Men became guild masters by hereditary succession or by election. Each guild had a unique seal made of bronze, copper, ivory, stone, or terracotta. The guild created sold bonds that extended over the surface of the entire kingdom on India. (Auboyer 1965: 102-6)

Gender Powers:
In India, the government it generally led by a King. In the event of rituals, these are always preformed by males. (Auboyer 1965)

Subsistence
In India not much is known of early crops and ways of farming due to the fact that the writings of these early civilizations have not been deciphered. This also makes it difficult to determine the conditions under which the early people of this region lived. This is a map of major farming systems in India. Where they grow rice is in the dark green color.

What we do know is that early Indians ate food that was easily available to them from nature. They ate things such as fruits, wild berries, meat, fish, etc. These were the main foods of nomadic dwellers and foragers. Later, when people began to farm - this led to the discovery of using crops to grow food for them. Now, food in ancient India was cultivated in the fertile river valleys and rice became their staple food that was eaten with cooked lentils, vegetables and meat. This gave their diet much more subsistence. Another popular crop was wheat. It was used to make flat breads known as "Chapatti", which looks much like a tortilla.

Later, animal sacrifices peaked and more and more people turned vegetarians. Milk products came much into use during ancient times, as did rice. Rice was eaten with curd and yogurt. Many people easily became vegetarian because cows were respected and worshipped hence people stopped eating beef. Crops were not only grown to eat. Many spices were cultivated in India and were used in cooking for aroma and flavor.
We think that in the early days a monsoon type crop , which includes, cotton, cane sugar and rice that were grown in the Indus Valley, was being raised in this area. They do not do this today though because of the climatic conditions. Anthropologists and historians believe that there is a possible climate change in the area between the early days and now. This is reaffirmed by Greek writings that suggest that there was more rainfall occurred then. In addition silt came down the Indus River in an annual flood. It is estimated that it was about twice the amount of silt which came down the Nile in Egypt, which is a tremendous amount. During this time cities controlled crop production and grain storage areas which is interesting because the size of the dams and other buildings suggests that it was quite a highly populated area for them to undertake such large projects.

Ancient Indians used techniques like dams and drainage systems to regulate the water being let on to their crops. Another farming technique was terracing, which is when a farmer cuts step like indentions into the side of a hill to plant their crops. This was very affective in growing rice. As farming grew they began to have standards of weights and measures - this crop large scale crop production is estimated to be established about 3000 B.C
This picture is an example of a terraced landscape used for growing rice.

Exchange
The most common monetary unit in India is the rupee. The first recognizable rupees date back to the 1540s and were spend on everything from day-to-day goods to dowries. These dowries and settlements regulated the exchange of women as marriage partners among the elite. Along with dowries, gifts played a central role in the emotional economy (Finn 203-231). They were vital in political relations as well as maternal ones. Gifts were often given during large ceremonial gatherings called durbars. These durbars were fantastic events for the whole family. It was a privilege to go to the market.

India has a huge textile industry that spans from southeast Asia all the way to western Europe. Indian cloth, as well as other high-quality artisan products such as gems, steel, and hardwood were quite the attraction to foreigners (Washbrook 87-111).

British Imperialism led to an economic decline around 1750. Their implementation of exchange banks was key to their colonial success (McGuire 143-163)